Eighty multiparous lactating dairy cows averaging days in milk 35-d were allocated in two separate experimental diet (Glucogenic vs. Lipogenic) in a changeover design. The performance, blood metabolites, liver enzymes and insulin were evaluated. The study lasted 44 days in two 22 days periods with the first 17 d as adaptation period and the last 5 days as sample collection period. The results show that neither dry matter intake nor milk yield were affected with treatments (P > 0. 05). However, the cows received the lipogenic diet showed to have greater milk fat content, and cows received glucogenic diet showed to have greater milk protein content. Regarding the blood metabolites results show that blood glucose was tended to be greater in glucogenic diet (P = 0. 08). Howevere triglyceride and blood urea concentrations were constant between two treatments. The concentrations for BHB (P = 0. 04) as well as cholesterol (P= 0. 05) were increased in lipogenic diet fed dairy cows. The insulin concentration was increased significantly in lipogenic diet fed cows (P = 0. 02). The results show that regardless the improvement in glucose as well as BHB concentration in blood of dairy cows fed with glucogenic diet, howevere fat corrected milk as well as milk energy output were improved for lipogenic diet. In addition increased insulin and cholesterol in dairy cows fed higher fat content has potential to improve dairy cow’ s fertility. In conclusion based on our results the lipogenic diet may be recommendable for dairy cows fed high RUP level.

Introduction: Transition period (3 weeks before to 3 weeks after calving) is a critical period for cows' health and production (Grummer 1995). During the late gestation, nutritional demand of fetus increases considerably, while feed intake reduces more than 30 percent during the last 3 weeks of gestation (Sadri et al. 2012). Nutritional strategies are important for preventing the decrease in DMI during close up period. On the other hand, rapid increase of postpartum DMI could reduce the severity of negative energy balance, and therefore, improve milk production and health (Polá ková et al. 2010). Grummer (1995) reported a positive correlation between DMI at d 1 prepartum and d 21 postpartum. Several nutritional approaches for the close-up diet have been proposed to stimulate prepartum DMI and minimize lipid mobilization: 1) use of bulky forage NDF sources into the diet to increase ruminal fill, 2) increase in dietary fat or NFC content of the diet to increase energy intake, 3) use of appetitive feeds for increasing in DMI and preventing ruminal acidosis and 4) use of feed additives that serve as gluconeogenic precursors to increase energy supply (Dann, et al. 2007). These approaches have yielded variable results in research and production settings. Diets with high levels of NFC are more common, but these diets may lead to acidosis and feed intake depression (Wang et al. 2013). In addition, readily fermentable carbohydrates (i. e. barley grain), increase ruminal propionate production and propionate can lead to reduction e in feed intake (Allen. 2009). Beet pulp is a unique feed ingredient containing 40% NDF with highly soluble fiber content (especially pectic substances) (Dann et al. 2007). There are different results for replacing grains with dried beet pulp in dairy cows nutrition. Clark and Armentano (1997) reported an increase in DMI of cows after replacing of shelled corn with dried beet pulp. However, some researchers demonstrated that dried beet pulp had no effect on cows' milk yield (Mahjubi et al. 2009; Clark and Armentano 1997). Although, Mahjubi et al. (2009) with replacing 50% of barley grain with beet pulp reported an increase in milk fat percentage. This study was designed to investigate the effect of different form of non-fibrous carbohydrates (lipogenic vs. glucogenic) diets on feed intake, performance, and ruminal pH in transition dairy cows. Material and methods: All procedures were conducted under protocols approved by the Isfahan University of Technology (IUT), Laboratory Animal Care Advisory Committee. The experiment was conducted in Lavark at the Farm Animal Research and Teaching Unit of IUT. Twenty-four multiparous (1-3 parity) Holstein cows were kept in 9 m 2 individual pens from 4 weeks before to 4 weeks after parturition. The animals have free access to feed and fresh water. In this study, pelleted beet pulp ground by a 2 mm screen was used as a partially replacement for ground barley grain. Twenty-four multiparous Holstein cows were fed a total mixed ration containing 100% barley as a grain source of concentrate and no beet pulp (BP0, Glucogenic Diet, GD) and in 2 experimental rations 25 (BP25, Low Lipogenic Diet, LLD) and 50% (BP50, High Lipogenic Diet, HLD) of barley grain in the glucogenic diet was replaced by beet pulp, from d 21 before anticipated calving to d 24 after calving. The experimental diets were formulated according to Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System (CNCPS, v. 6. 1, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY) for pre and postpartum periods. Data were analyzed as a block randomized design (parity as blocks). Daily DMI was determined by subtracting orts from offered TMR and were recorded for individual cows. After parturition, cows were milked three times daily in a milking parlour, and milk production was recorded at each milking time. Milk samples were collected weekly from three consecutive milking, and preserved using potassium dichromate. Milk samples were analyzed for fat, protein, lactose and total solid by an automated near infra-red spectroscopy analyzer (Milk-O-Scan, 134 BN, Foss Electric, HillerØ d, Denmark). Body weights were measured weekly pre and postpartum (from d-28 to d +25) and the changes in BW were calculated. Postpartum net energy balance (NEB) for each cow was calculated based on NRC (2001). Results and discussion: Results showed that during the prepartum period, DMI (kg/d), DMI (%BW), and energy intake (Mcal/d) were increased by substitution of barley grain with dried beet pulp (P<0. 01); however, the change in DMI as a percentage of BW from d 19 to d 1 before parturition was not affected by treatments. During postpartum, DMI (kg/d), DMI (%BW), and energy intake (Mcal/d) increased as a quadratic effect (P<0. 01) with the increasing levels of beet pulp replacement. Body weights, back fat thickness and postpartum calculated net energy balance were not affected by the treatments. During postpartum, milk yield was the lowest by using HLD (P<0. 01). However, 4% FCM and ECM and total solid of milk were not affected by the treatments. HLD significantly increased milk fat percentage (P<0. 05) and decreased milk protein percentage (P<0. 07) in comparison with the GD and LLD. During postpartum, ruminal pH was the lowest in GD (P<0. 05). Conclusion: Results suggest that using of LLD in periparturient diets increased DMI, energy intake, milk yield and improved rumen health.

Introduction: Ingestion of solid feed is necessary to stimulate rumen development in the young calf and facilitate the transition from a pre-ruminant to a functioning ruminant. Lipogenic nutrients in ruminants originate from fermentation of fiber to acetate and butyrate, dietary fat or are derived from body reserves. Glucogenic nutrients originate from starch that has escaped rumen degradation or gluconeogenesis. The use of low-starch starters is prevalent in dairy calf industry worldwide. These starters differ greatly in their composition of both fiber and fat. The NRC (2001) suggested that adequate digestible fiber should be included in starter diets but limited data exist to substantiate this statement. Digestible fiber sources such as sugar beet pulp, soybean hulls, and wheat bran have a lower ME value than corn and barley grains which are starch rich. A meta-analysis of 6 studies showed positive linear relationships between starch concentration of starter feed with ADG. However meta-regression analysis indicated that growth responses to starch concentration were influenced by ME concentration in dry feed fed to the calves. One possible way to enhance energy intake is to increase the energy density of the diet with fat. Convenient starter diets are typically low in fat. Most previous studies have either compared high-starch to high-fiber starter diets or investigated effects of fat supplementation on rumen environment and growth performance whereas our interest is in growth responses to diets differing in starch, NDF, and fat in calves. We hypothesize that a low-starch starter feed in which starch is substituted by fiber and fat will support growth performance similar to a traditional high-starch starter concentrate and high-fiber, highfat diet might also improve ruminal environment in calves. We also hypothesized that preference for certain type of starter would become apparent, providing an indication of which type of energy sources may be considered more palatable for calves and therefore recommended to formulate starter feed mixture. The objectives of our study was to investigate the effects of lipogenic starter (low-starch with high-fiber and high-fat content) in comparison with a glucogenic (high-starch) or mixture of glucogenic and lipogenic starters on growth performance, ruminal fermentation, as well as blood metabolites of dairy calves during the first 70 d of life. Materials and Methods: In first experiment, thirty Holstein female calves (4 d of age; 41. 0 ± 4. 0 kg of BW), randomly assigned by BW to one of the three dietary treatments. Treatments consisted of (1) a high starch starter feed containing corn and barley grain (glucogenic); (2) a high fiber and fat starter feed containing soybean hulls, corn germ meal, sugar beet pulp, wheat bran, full fat soybean, and vegetable oil (lipogenic); and (3) a starter feed containing mixture of diets 1 and 2 (MIX). Starter intakes were measured daily and all the calves were weighed at birth and subsequently every 7 d until the end of the experiment. Feed efficiency was calculated as the weight gain to feed intake ratio (kg/kg). In addition, the structural growth indices were measured on d 4, at weaning and at the end of the study. Blood samples from each calf were collected at 35 and 70 d to determine glucose, BUN, and β-hydroxybutyrate. Ruminal fluid was obtained 2 h after offering the morning feed at 35 and 70 d to determine the rumen pH and concentration of volatile fatty acids. Data were analyzed as a completely randomized design using a repeated-measures mixed model (PROC MIXED) of SAS software. In second experiment, 20 Holstein female calves fed a standard ration until 70 days of age. Three days after weaning, each calf was involved in a pairwise preference test between glucogenic and lipogenic diets. For each calf in each pairwise preference test, preference ratio was calculated as the consumption of one feed as a percentage of the consumption of both feeds in the test. Preference ratios were compared for a difference from 0. 5 (lack of preference) using t-tests. The feed type was assigned +1 if it was preferred, − 1 if it was not preferred, and 0 if the preference ratio in a pairwise preference test did not differ from 0. 5. Total preference scores were used as an indicator of overall preference rank of individual feed type. Results and Discussion: Results of the first experiment showed that dry matter intake was higher in the MIX diet group in the post weaning period than the other groups and a tendency to increase dry matter intake was observed throughout the study period. Average daily gain, feed efficiency, body weight, and skeletal growth were not different between treatments. Blood glucose (day 35 and 70) and plasma β-hydroxybutyric acid concentration (day 70) were higher in calves fed the glucogenic and lipogenic diet, respectively, compared to the other treatments. Rumen fluid pH and acetate concentration in calves fed the lipogenic diet were higher than those fed the glucogenic and MIX diets. The second experiment showed that calves preferred the lipogenic diet over the glucogenic diet. Conclusion: The results from this study showed that providing MIX diet rather than glucogenic and lipogenic diets increased post weaning intakes of starter without improving ADG and final BW. The results of the preference test clearly indicate that lipogenic diet is a highly palatable feed for recently weaned dairy calves, whereas glucogenic diet is less preferred. Given the positive trend observed in MIX feed diet, this diet seems to be recommendable for farm application. Whether the effects of energy source in early life could have long-term consequences on growth and milk yield are not known and warrant further research.

The delivery method of [continuous (CONT) vs. every other day or intermittent (INT)] a glucogenic precur-sor (GP) which was contained glycerin (500 g/kg), mono-propylene glycol (250 g/kg), calcium propionate (150 g/kg), niacin (1 g/kg) and sulfate-Co (350 mg/kg) on performance, selected blood metabolites and liver enzymes were evaluated. Twenty-four multiparous Holstein fresh cows were allocated in a completely randomized design (8 animals/each treatment) fed individually for a period of 14 days after calving. The experimental groups were: 1) no GP supplementation (CTR), 2) GP offered as an oral drench once a day (GP-CONT) on days 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 after calving and 3) GP offered as an oral drench once a day intermit-tently (GP-INT) on days 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11 after calving. The amount of oral drenched GP was 1 kg/d. Blood samples were obtained on 5 and 14 days in milk. Dry matter intake (DMI) was increased (P=0. 05) in GP-INT cows compared to GP-CONT but not control cows. The yield of fat corrected milk was greater in CTR cows than in GP supplemented cows (P=0. 01). The milk protein and fat content were greater for GP-CONT and CTR groups, respectively. Milk somatic cell count was decreased in GP supplemented cows than in CTR cows (64. 5 vs. 365×103/mL; P=0. 02). Plasma total protein concentration was greater in GP-CONT group. Insulin concentration was increased for GP-CON animals on day 5 (P<0. 05). Non-esterified fatty acids and β-hydroxy butyrate as well as liver enzymes were unaltered by treatments. However insulin sensi-tivity index was lower in supplemented treatments with GP rather than control group (P<0. 05). In conclu-sion, the intermittent delivery of glucogenic precursor may be recommendable in fresh cows based on DMI criteria, which warrants further studies.

Background and objectives: Human diet is branded with higher caloric and protein content and cooking processes in comparison with the diet of the primate species. The aim of this study was to explore the differences between human diet and chimpanzee diet which consists of fruits and vegetables, to find benefits and harmful aspects of human nutritional behavior. Methods: Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of mouse liver in response to consume “human cafeteria diet” and “chimpanzee diet” were acquired form Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. The DEGs were assessed based on p-adj and fold change criteria. The significant DEGs were included in a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network to form an interactome unit. Central nodes of the studied network were determined based on degree value and betweenness centrality. The identified central genes were evaluated via gene ontology. Results: Numbers of 150 significant DEGs that discriminated the two nutrition diet regimes were introduced. Fatty acid synthase (FASN), stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD), and farnesyl-diphosphate farnesyltransferase 1 (FDFT1) were pointed out as the central DEGs. “Activation of gene expression by SREBF (SREBP)” and “NR1H2 & NR1H3 regulate gene expression linked to lipogenesis” were highlighted as two classes of the biological terms that were related to the central DEGs. Conclusion: The findings indicated that human cafeteria diet is a lipogenic regime compared to the chimpanzee diet which is enriched with vegetables. The studied human nutrition behavior was accompanied with increased level of fatty acid synthesis enzymes beside cholesterol accumulation in body.

The aim of this study was to compare the effect of glycogenic and/or lipogenic diets fed in Baluchi ewes treated with an estrus synchronization method to reduce delivery distance and improving reproductive parameters. Ninety heads of Baluchi ewes selected and randomly placed into three parallel groups. Each ewe of group was fed in with three different diets based on the fat and starch sources. In order to do the estrus synchronization, all ewes were put CIDR in 30 day of the trial. After 14 days, they were removed, then four hundred IU eCG hormone were injected. As soon as estrus signals was observed, ewes were inseminated. Ultrasonography was done to observe the number of dominant follicle, CL and pregnancy diagnosis. After parturition, reproductive parameters like lambing and twining rate were analyzed. The most of examined ewes showed clearly estrus signals. The consequence of ovary sonography did not indicate significant effect in average of dominant follicles numbers among the experimental diets. The number of dominant follicles was increased significantly from time of estrus to artificial insemination. Ovulation, pregnancy and twining rate were considerably (P< 0. 05) higher in glycogenic and glycogenic+lipogenic rations compared with lipogenic ration. Generally, the feeding of starch source alone and or along with low proportion of fat sources might improve the effect of estrus synchronization on reproductive performance of Baluchi ewes.

Fructose consumption has increased dramatically in the last 40 years and its role in the pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome has been implicated by many studies. It is most often encountered in the diet as sucrose (glucose and fructose) or high-fructose corn syrup (55% fructose). At high levels, dietary exposure to fructose triggers a series of metabolic changes originating in the liver, leading to hepatic steatosis, hypertriglyceridemia, insulin resistance and decreased leptin sensitivity. Fructose has been identified to alter biological pathways in other tissues including the central nervous system, adipose tissue and the gastrointestinal system. Unlike glucose, consumption of fructose produces smaller increases in the circulating satiety hormone glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), and does not attenuate levels of the appetite suppressing hormone ghrelin. In the brain, fructose contributes to increased food consumption by activating appetite and reward pathways and stimulating hypothalamic AMPK activity, a nutrient-sensitive regulator of food intake. Recent studies investigating the neurophysiological factors linking fructose consumption and weight gain in humans have demonstrated differential activation of brain regions that govern appetite, motivation and reward processing. Compared to fructose, glucose ingestion produces a greater reduction of hypothalamic neuronal activity and increases functional connectivity between the hypothalamus and other reward regions of the brain, indicating these two sugars regulate feeding behavior through distinct neural circuits.This review outlines current findings in fructosefeeding studies in both human and animal models and focuses on the central effects on the CNS that may lead to increased appetite and food intake.